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Research on the Connotation and Complex Evolution of Zhuang Footwear Culture

壮族鞋履的文化内涵与复合化演变研究

Qu Yueling

Abstract:

This paper delves into the evolution of Zhuang footwear, encapsulating the transformation of typical Zhuang shoe styles from the Spring and Autumn period to the Southern Song, mid-Ming, and late Qing dynasties, even to the modern era, as outlined below: from “barefoot walking” to “wooden clogs”, “leather shoes”, and ultimately “embroidered shoes”, the diversified evolution of Zhuang footwear encapsulates an enduring functional perspective, a simplistic aesthetic view, and a worldview that venerates nature. This paper further traces the intricate evolution of Zhuang footwear with the objective of enhancing the research framework for Zhuang foot adornments. By scrutinizing the multifaceted development of footwear culture, it offers valuable references for the study of Zhuang clothing history and the progression of clothing art.

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Key words:

footwear; complex evolution; transformation

Author:Qu Yueling (2000–), female, master’s student, main research interest in art and design.

1 Introduction

Complex evolution emphasizes the integrated development of the functionality, aesthetics, and cultural significance of footwear culture, which is inseparable from the support of art and culture. From the perspective of shoe style development, there are two directions: one direction is complex evolution, wherein the more consistent the composite forms become, the more distinct the characteristics appear. Conversely, the other direction is the inheritance of functional perspectives, where the footwear of each period fulfills its unique role. While a single function inevitably faces developmental bottlenecks, the trend leans towards the complex evolution of footwear.

2 History of Zhuang footwear evolution

Footwear, a key part of attire, holds practical value and is integral to folk customs and daily life. Today, the Zhuang people primarily wear modern textile shoes, leading to the decline of traditional handcrafted styles. However, some villages still practice traditional weaving techniques. Research shows that the evolution of Zhuang footwear is closely tied to regional environment, economic conditions, and ethnic culture.

During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the ancestors of the Zhuang people were characterized by their practice of walking barefoot or wearing rudimentary shoes. Given the considerable historical distance and the severe lack of historical records, it is challenging for the author to accurately investigate the exact nature of the footwear worn by the earliest Black-clad Zhuang people. There are only a few mentions in historical literature, historical records state that barefoot walking and wearing rudimentary shoes coexisted[1], from which it can be inferred that during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the primary form of Zhuang footwear was barefoot walking.

During the Southern Song period, the footwear of the Zhuang ancestors gradually evolved from barefoot walking to wooden clogs. The History of Social and Cultural Development of the Zhuang Ethnic Group records that the Zhuang people wore wooden clogs. Fan Chengda remarked, “They are called Da Zhang, Xiao Zhang, Da Wang, Xiao Wang, Long, Shi, Teng, and Xie, referred to as the southwestern barbarians, with their land adjacent to Zangke, and the people wear their hair in a topknot and go barefoot, or wear wooden clogs”, indicating that during the Southern Song period, wooden clogs were the predominant footwear of the Zhuang ancestors. Simultaneously, to adapt to warfare and hunting, “leather shoes” were also used and passed down through generations. Footwear is also documented in records, as mentioned in Guihai Yuheng Zhi: “The villagers are often strong and agile, able to endure hardships, wearing leather shoes, they climb up and down the mountains without tiring”[2]. This suggests that during the Southern Song period, the Zhuang people had already adapted to wearing various types of footwear, such as wooden clogs and leather shoes.

The mid-Ming period was a pivotal era for Zhuang footwear, serving as a transitional phase where straw sandals became the predominant type of footwear. Due to the commercial prosperity of foreign trade ports at the time, wooden clogs gradually evolved into straw sandals. Gazetteer of Guangxi records that straw sandals had already spread to the Central Plains, noting, “They also wear straw sandals, which are quite inappropriate”. This indicates that shoes woven from hemp and grass, specifically from plant leaves and stems such as reeds and rice straw, were in use. It can thus be inferred that the Zhuang people in the mid-Ming period were already wearing straw sandals.

In the late Qing Dynasty, grass shoes gradually evolved into embroidered shoes as the economy developed. Women began knitting soles, making embroidered shoes a daily staple. Chen Wei’s The History and Culture of Chinese Embroidered Shoes explores their historical origin and cultural background, highlighting how embroidered shoes became mainstream in Zhuang attire.

From the Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period and to the late Qing dynasty, the evolution of footwear roughly transitioned from barefoot walking, wooden clogs, and leather shoes to straw sandals and finally to embroidered shoes. This transformation was influenced by various natural, material, social, and cultural factors. Consequently, the development of modern production methods and the fast-paced nature of contemporary life have driven the Zhuang footwear to adapt to Han Chinese shoe styles that meet the demands of the times.

3 Reasons for the transformation of Zhuang footwear

Experts categorize “culture” into three relationships: between humans and the environment, among individuals, and with oneself. The first relationship focuses on the connection between people and nature, including technological and non-material cultural dimensions. The second pertains to psychological aspects, while the third involves social organization and interpersonal dynamics. Footwear, as a cultural behavior, reflects these relationships[3]. The evolution of shoe styles illustrates these connections, analyzed through natural environment, economic conditions, ethnic culture, and psychological characteristics.

3.1 Natural environmental conditions

The Zhuang people, primarily engaged in rice farming, have their choice of footwear materials significantly influenced by their living environment. For example, Napo County, characterized by its hot and rainy climate and dense forests, primarily cultivates crops such as rice, ramie, indigo, corn, and legumes. This agricultural foundation provides the material basis for the diverse development of footwear in subsequent generations. For instance, in the case of embroidered shoes, Zhuang women cultivate ramie and harvest it. They strip the fibers from the ramie stalks and, through a series of processes including soaking, washing, and drying, spin the ramie fibers into thread for weaving cloth. After weaving the cloth, they dye it dark blue using the juice of the indigo plant[4]. Finally, they create samples of embroidered shoes through the processes of fabric beating, embroidery, and sole making. The black-clad Zhuang source all their footwear materials from their surrounding environment, as illustrated above, indicating that regional conditions significantly influence the materials used in Zhuang footwear.

3.2 Socio-material factors

The state of socio-economic development influences the rate of evolution of Zhuang footwear, creating a scenario where resources complement each other. The selection of materials for footwear has evolved through a developmental process combining grass, wood, leather, silk, and fabric. This progression from simplicity to elegance in footwear reflects the corresponding levels of productivity development among the Zhuang people[5].

During the Southern Song dynasty, handicrafts rapidly advanced, reaching a peak in ancient China. The transition from barefoot walking to wooden shoes marked the early stage of shoe development. The History of Social and Cultural Development of Zhuang Nationality notes that Zhuang ancestors rinsed their feet on trestle platforms before wearing wooden shoes. Leather shoes were crafted from animal fur, while straw shoes were adorned with plant fibers and cloth, leading to diverse shoe styles. With the influx of foreign yarn and cloth, fabric became the primary material for footwear. Volume 7 of Huang Qing Zhi Gong Tu describes Zhuang women as “tying their hair and wrapping their heads, wearing short, tightly-buttoned clothes, thinly pleated bucket skirts, and embroidered shoes”. In remote mountainous areas, Zhuang women used cotton for embroidery, sewing decorations, and laminating shoe soles.

Footwear symbolizes identity, authority, and status. The History of Social and Cultural Development of Zhuang Nationality notes that due to historical events and changing perceptions, Zhuang footwear evolved under the influence of Sinicization, showing adaptive and coercive variations. Adaptively, it reflected acceptance of new environments and cultures, seen in the use of natural materials and colors in straw, wooden, and embroidered shoes. Coercively, political turmoil and officials’ efforts to enforce Han culture altered traditional Zhuang footwear practices.

3.3 Cultural inheritance

The Zhuang people retain the most ancient, traditional, and classic lifestyle among their branches. Their footwear reflects a deep connection to nature: first, the reverence for nature has been transformed into spiritual worship; second, the primitive level of productivity has led to the dependency on nature, fostering a mindset of natural worship. The relatively low productivity of primitive society made the Zhuang people highly dependent on and closely connected to their natural environment. Additionally, in primitive society, without complex religious systems or philosophical thought, reverence for nature was expressed through the worship of natural objects and celestial phenomena.

The concept of “being with one’s ancestors” reflects the reverence of the living for the dead and is expressed in Zhuang footwear culture through symbolic decorations and shapes. Embroidery on Zhuang shoes, combining brocade patterns, narrates and symbolizes ancestral beliefs[6]. The colors of the shoes also convey meaning: black shoes signify mourning, red shoes symbolize good luck, and straw shoes are used in rituals, all expressing veneration and worship of the ancestors.

3.4 Psychological factors

The evolution of Zhuang footwear, influenced by individual preferences and the varying psychology of different Zhuang subgroups, is reflected in trends in design, color, and style. In terms of design, the hooked-toe shoes worn by Zhuang women, with slightly upturned tips, are well-suited for agricultural and weedy environments. The primary colors are dark blue and black, with yellow, green, and purple as accents, and intricate patterns embroidered on the shoe uppers create a strong visual impact. Style-wise, they are categorized into round-toe for everyday use, pointed-toe for formal occasions, and boat-toe for casual settings. Thus, the structural design, color coordination, and situational use of Zhuang footwear encapsulate the wisdom and creativity of the Zhuang people, reflecting their aesthetic consciousness and relentless pursuit of beauty.

4 Inheritance and evolution of Zhuang footwear

In the process of inheritance and development, shoe styles have evolved, with functions and forms becoming increasingly diverse and purposes expanding. Footwear not only serves practical needs but also carries aesthetic and social significance.

4.1 Practical function

The evolution of Zhuang footwear has preserved essential practical functions such as foot protection, slip resistance, comfort, breathability, and durability. The ancestors crafted shoes from sturdy, durable wood to shield their feet from the harsh environment, with grooved or textured soles for added slip resistance. Leather materials, which adapt to the foot’s shape, offered high comfort and were suitable for long-term wear. Straw sandals, made by weaving grasses for the soles and uppers, were known for their lightweight comfort and breathability. Embroidered shoes featured intricate patterns, enhancing their decorative appeal. Thus, the evolving shoe styles have retained the traditional practical functions.

4.2 Aesthetic function

Zhuang footwear serves both practical and aesthetic functions, embodying rhythmic contrast and vibrant colors. Shoes are categorized as round-toe, pointed-toe, and boat-toe ones for casual comfort, elegant formal wear, and leisure with extra space, respectively. Predominantly black, shoes feature delicate embroidery. Unmarried women’s shoes are brightly colored with phoenix and floral patterns symbolizing marital bliss, while married women’s shoes adopt pastel tones and nature motifs, reflecting reverence for nature and ancestors. This traditional design preserves unique ethnic characteristics and showcases decorative beauty.

4.3 Social function

The evolution of Zhuang footwear reflects social role identity and cultural significance throughout life stages. Starting with “tiger’s head shoes” at birth, moving to shoes for rites of passage, status-symbol shoes after marriage, and finally, funeral shoes, each type carries rich meanings. Baby shoes feature auspicious colors, men’s are typically black, unmarried women’s display phoenix and peony patterns, while married women’s shoes feature animal and plant motifs. Elderly birthday shoes are often simple and patchwork. These diverse designs not only express Zhuang ethnic consciousness but also serve as key cultural markers of social roles.

Zhuang ethnic footwear has undergone a significant evolution, transcending its traditional functions to embrace new dimensions. Its functionality has shifted from simple elegance to vibrant aesthetics, and its practicality has transformed into decorative appeal.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, the evolution of Zhuang ethnic footwear, transitioning from wooden clogs and leather shoes to straw sandals and embroidered shoes, is an inevitable trend driven by societal development. Regional conditions serve as limiting factors in this transformation, while economic progress plays a decisive role. Cultural factors have liberated the mindset of the Zhuang people, and psychological aspects are crucial in the footwear’s evolution. The insights we gain from this are twofold: firstly, it is essential to preserve the original cultural elements of Zhuang ethnic footwear, which possess distinct cultural characteristics; secondly, there must be a proactive pursuit of innovation. The culture of Zhuang footwear, influenced by external factors from other ethnic cultures, should maintain its traditional essence while continually seeking innovation through intercultural exchange and integration. Today, the development of Zhuang ethnic footwear remains rooted in traditional forms, with innovation based on these forms driving its evolution. This process highlights its uniqueness and creativity, leading to new heights while preserving the essence of its indigenous cultural heritage.

References:

[1] BAI Y T, Social and Cultural History of the Zhuang People[M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2019: 699.

[2] FAN C D, Guihai Yuheng Zhi[M]. Nanning: Guangxi People’s Publishing House: 1986, 50-61.

[3] CHEN L Q. Exploration of the Evolution and Reasons Behind Zhuang Ethnic Costumes[J]. Social Science Front, 2008(3): 130-134.

[4] KUANG Q. The artistic characteristics of the “three-story” dress of the Zhuang nationality in Longlin[J]. Art Panorama, 2020(1): 107-109.

[5] CHEN L. On the reasons of Zhuang nationality’s costume changes[J]. Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University (Social Science Edition), 2008(1): 5-9.

[6] CHU X B, CHEN X D. Research on cultural connotation and compound development form of Miao Costume: Taking Longlin Autonomous County as an example[J]. ZHUANGSHI, 2022(3): 118-123.

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